Persulfate is an emerging oxidant for in situ chemical oxidation because of its higher reactivity to various organic pollutants and longer lifetime in the subsurface than conventional oxidants. Activation of persulfate for generating sulfate radical i...
Persulfate is an emerging oxidant for in situ chemical oxidation because of its higher reactivity to various organic pollutants and longer lifetime in the subsurface than conventional oxidants. Activation of persulfate for generating sulfate radical is important reaction in persulfate−based oxidation processes because the sulfate radical has high oxidation potential and superior oxidation rate. In this study, mechanisms of persulfate activation by NZVI, electric current, and dissolved organic matters were elucidated
Among persulfate activation approaches, use of nanosized zero−valent iron (NZVI) as an activator is prospective because NZVI is proven to be an effective reagent for in situ remediation, and it can supply ferrous ion for persulfate activation. Persulfate activation by NZVI, however, would be stalled when NZVI is exhausted or passivated by oxidation. Electrochemical process can supplement reactivity and longevity of persulfate/NZVI process through production of Fe2+ by reduction at the cathode. Further, anodic current degrades organic contaminants via direct and indirect oxidation. In the application of persulfate/NZVI and electrochemical/persulfate/NZVI processes to subsurface remediation, dissolved constituents of groundwater significantly affect persulfate activation. Dissolved organic matters (DOMs) are redox active substances among groundwater dissolved constituents. DOMs would accept/donate electrons during (electrochemical)/persulfate/NZVI processes and would contribute to persulfate activation.
Mechanisms of persulfate activation by NZVI were first elucidated. Two distinct reaction stages were observed when phenol was oxidized by the persulfate activated by NZVI. The first stage was three orders of magnitude faster than the second stage. Fe0 corroded rapidly and sulfate radicals were produced through activation by aqueous Fe2+ during the initial stage. Fe catalyzed activation governed the second stage. The aqueous Fe3+ and iron (oxyhydr)oxides in the NZVI shells contributed to the Fe catalyzed persulfate activation. The sulfate radical yield per mole of persulfate was more than two times higher in the persulfate/NZVI system than in the persulfate/Fe2+ system. It was believed that NZVI supplied aqueous Fe2+ slowly, preventing sulfate radicals being scavenged by excess aqueous Fe2+. The magnetite in the NZVI shell provided electrons for activating persulfate through multi-layered shell by bulk conduction mechanism in the second stage. Shrinking core/growing shell model explained NZVI transformation during the persulfate/NZVI process.
The electrochemically assisted persulfate/NZVI process was examined. The electrochemical process overcame the drawback of persulfate/NZVI process, which was drastic decrease in reaction rate after Fe0 was consumed. The system with current density ranging 1–5 mA/cm2 completely oxidized phenol. After Fe0 was depleted, phenol oxidation was mainly due to the persulfate activation by Fe2+, which was formed at the cathode by Fe3+ reduction. When the applied current densities were over 10 mA/cm2, phenol oxidation rate was substantially slowed because of the side reactions, which were hydrogen evolution and Fe2+ reduction to Fe0. Sulfate radicals formed through the cathodic reaction under low current densities (1–5 mA/cm2) mainly contributed to the phenol oxidation. Direct oxidation of phenol at the anode surface was major phenol oxidation mechanism under high current densities (10–20 mA/cm2).
Mechanisms of persulfate activation by DOMs were investigated. Suwanee River Humic Acid (SRHA), which was the terrestrially−derived aquatic DOM, showed the highest persulfate consumption among DOMs. This was ascribed to the highest contents of electron donating moieties in SRHA. Hydroquinone exhibited highest persulfate consumption among untreated DOM model compounds. DOM model compounds containing aromatic OH, such as gallic acid, tannic acid, and juglone also showed relatively high persulfate consumption. Persulfate consumption by untreated DOMs and model compounds showed strong linear correlations with aromatic OH contents of substances. After DOM and model compounds were chemically reduced, persulfate consumption was correlated with the summation of aromatic OH, quinone, and aromatic ketone contents in the substances. This implied that aromatic ketone as well as quinone, activated persulfate when it was reduced. Benzene oxidation, however, did not show high correlation with contents of redox active moieties in DOMs. This was ascribed to the presence of other electron accepting moieties which scavenged sulfate radical. Reduced SRHA showed higher sulfate radical yield than persulfate/Fe2+ system, implying applicability of activator−free oxidation process using persulfate in the presence of reduced DOMs in the contaminated area.
This study elucidated the mechanisms of persulfate activation by NZVI for in situ chemical oxidation. Enhancement of persulfate activation using an electrochemical approach and activation of persulfate by natural redox active constituents, i.e., DOMs, were investigated. Results of this study provide understandings of persulfate activation mechanisms which can occur during in situ chemical oxidation process and contribute to designing sulfate radical based in situ chemical oxidation processes. This study also can be a basis for exploring fate of reactive oxygen species in oxidation processes.