In international financial markets, disputes are among people and entities from different jurisdictions. Dispute resolutions are complex since they have different culture, language, customs or legal system. This leads to loan agreements to specify at ...
In international financial markets, disputes are among people and entities from different jurisdictions. Dispute resolutions are complex since they have different culture, language, customs or legal system. This leads to loan agreements to specify at the outset the system of law chosen by the parties to govern the interpretation of the contract.
Most loan transactions take place in an international financial center such as London or New York. Accordingly, syndicated loan agreements choose English law or New York law as a governing law. Loan agreements also make a choice London or New York as to the jurisdiction in which disputes between the parties will be heard. Where a dispute arises, the drafting and interpretation of the loan agreement is one of the most important parts since the court looks for the intention of the parties in the loan agreement. Unfortunately, there is insufficient research on the interpretation of international financial contracts in Korea. Especially, there needs to study the representations and warranties clause in syndicated loan agreements.
There are Korean cases which have conflicted in interpretation as to the representations and warranties clause of mergers and acquisitions contracts. In practice, Korean finance lawyers use common law contracts as templates without appropriate modifications for financial transactions. As a result, this dissertation focuses on common law, studies the representations and warranties clause in international loan agreements, and compares the common law and civil law of South Korea.
Banks want to protect themselves as much as possible where there is a likelihood that the borrower will default on the loan. Banks need full information about the borrower before deciding to participate in the syndication and offering an interest rate. They require the borrower to agree conditions precedent and covenants before advancing the funds and thereafter. Banks require the borrower and guarantor to represent and warrant before any drawdown, certain legal and factual assumptions on which the loan was made. The representations and warranties clause is the most appropriate method for them to affirm the legal and factual assumptions on the borrower and loan.
The representations and warranties clause was not used in civil law since it was a common law contractual term. A representation is a statement of fact made by one party to another party that, if untrue, may create grounds for a claim under tort for misrepresentation. A warranty is a contractual promise. Under common law, if a representation is intentionally false, a plaintiff can make a common law claim of deceit and allege fraudulent misrepresentation. On the other hand, a warranty if untrue, may create a cause of action for breach of warranty. However, there are uncertainties which statements become part of the basis of the bargain. In order to deal with these uncertainties, parties agree to include the representations and warranties clause.
Common law representations and warranties appear in many agreements, including sales, acquisition, loan, publishing, joint venture, and employment agreements. This dissertation studies on loan agreements along with sales and acquisition agreements which have accumulated case law since many torts and contracts have developed through historical accident particularly. This dissertation focuses on common law. In addition this dissertation analyses cases and legal theories in Korea and Japan.
Representations and warranties are not inextricably linked. Representations and warranties are different tools for the contract drafter. Some parties, as a matter of principle, refuse to take fraud risk, and will not make representations, only warranties. Since warranty developed from deceit, reliance of tort element was required to show by the plaintiff. During the nineteenth century, warranty law grew out of the tort law misrepresentation action of deceit. Tortious misrepresentation has always required the plaintiff to prove reliance on the defendant's misrepresentation as a causal link between the defendant's false statement and the plaintiff's harm. However, in CBS Inc. v. Ziff-Davis Publishing Co., 75 N.Y.2d 496 (1990), the New York's highest court held whether CBS had a cause of action for breach of warranty. According to the New York court, a warranty is a promise of indemnity if a statement of fact is false. A promisee does not have to believe that the statement is true. Nonetheless, it should be noted that it is not the reliance requirement that disappears, but the confusion in the New York case. The Ziff-Davis court pointed this out and said that the required reliance was established if the express warranties are bargained-for terms. Therefore, where the other party knew that warrantor breached the warranty, the court did not allow the cause of action for a breach of warranty. It is not different in English law, either. A breach of warranty requires justifiable reliance on the truthfulness of the statement, which is different from the standard contractual term that relieves a promisee from the obligation of determining a fact's truthfulness.
The author believes that the law of warranty in international loan agreements has to be interpreted as one similar to liability for warranty against defects under Korean Civil Act as many Japanese scholars have agreed.
In the event of breach, the aggrieved parties' remedies include the law of misrepresentation as well. A contractual action between the parties does not bar an action in tort for misrepresentation. The two causes of action can coexist. The plaintiff is free to pursue them concurrently or choose which cause of action to pursue. In misrepresentation, fault plays an important role. If a plaintiff cannot prove the defendant's scienter, or if the plaintiff knew that the statement was false so that she could not have justifiably relied on its truthfulness, the plaintiff's cause of action for misrepresentation will fail. On the other hand, it should be noted that there is a cause of action at common law and under a statute, Misrepresentation Act 1967 whose liability will be more easily established in the U. K.
As regards to misrepresentation in international loan agreements under the Korean legal system, the aggrieved parties can bring an action for rescission or damages for general tort, mistake or fraud in Korean Civil Act. Where a representer induced mistake of the aggrieved party, Korean courts have held rescission and damages under mistake doctrine and fraud doctrine. In 2007, the Supreme Court of Korea held one korean bank liable due to its negligent misrepresentation in response to a credit inquiry by a third party, which was the first case in Korea dealing with the negligent misrepresentation doctrine.
Finally, the standards for a cause of action for a fraudulent misrepresentation and a breach of warranty under common law both require reliance on the truthfulness of the statement. However, the determination of whether the buyer's conduct constitutes an intentional relinquishment of a seller's express warranty includes consideration of the source of information available to the buyer and a determination of whether the buyer clearly relied upon the information. Where the source of information is not from a seller, the buyer's conduct does not constitute an intentional relinquishment of a seller's express warranty. On the other hand, Korea Civil Act takes a passive approach and does not allow the warranty liability where the buyer has actual or constructive knowledge. No matter where the source of information is, the buyer's conduct constitutes an intentional relinquishment of a seller's express warranty when the buyer was aware of defects. The author strongly believes that considering the world as it is today should the circumstances be limited to cases where the buyer was aware of or was not aware of defects due to his gross negligence by the amendment of Korean Civil Act.