The Role of international law in the fight against civil avation terrorism

국문 초록 (Abstract)

항공기의 노선, 존재, 그리고 모든 상업활동은 국가의 감독과 규제의 산물이다. 또한 항공은 국가를 위한 긍지, 명성, 포부 및 국제화의 상징이다. 더욱이 상업적항공의 재앙은 고의에 의하거나 사고에 의한 것을 구분하지 않고 중요하게 하나의 사건으로 대중매체에서 다루어진다. 신문 1면에 기재되거나 뉴스 잡지의 주요테마로 소개되고 전자미디어에서도 소개된다. 이와 같은 이유로 상업항공은 테러리스트의 주요 목표가 된다. 테러리스트는 현대사회의 악몽과 같다. 그것은 테러리즘이 그것 자체로 얼마나 잔인한 것인지 상상할 수 있는 의미이다. 국제민간운송에 가해지는 위법한 방해의 공격은 다음과 같은 행위로 구성된다. 항공기 하이재킹, 운항중이거나 착륙한 항공기 폭발을 야기하는 항공 사보타지, 항공기에 대한 미사일 공격, 공항에 대한 무장 공격, 승객과 다른 항공운송과 관련된 재산, 항공기에 의한 불법적 마약운반이나 그것의 범죄적 연결, 항공기를 무기로 사용하는 것, 테러리즘에 의한 직접적이고 경제적인 행위 등이다.
하이재킹과 다른 항공기 테러리즘은 무고한 사람들 대상으로 정치적 목적을 달성하려고 하는 군사적 취약을 보완하기 위한 수단으로 발전되어왔다. 민간항공의 초창기에 승객의 주요 관심은 항공기 상태와 조종사의 운항실력이었다. 그러나 최근에는 한 가지 더 추가되었다. 승객 중 한 사람이 혁명의 원인으로 미디어의 주목을 받을 기회로 이용하는가 아닌가 하는 점이다. 하이재킹과 항공기 파괴는 여전히 세계인의 관심을 끌 수 있는 효과적인 수단이다. 하이재킹의 대부분은 민간항공을 대상으로 하는 경우가 많다. 다른 범죄행위로는 (1) 공항공격, (2) 폭탄 설치, 폭탄 설치 시도, 그리고 탑승중 항공기에 대한 사격 (3) 일반기나 전세기에 사고 (4) 공항 외부 시설 공격, (5) 운항 중 항공기에 대한 요격 등이다.
첫번째 장은 국제법의 성장과 항공법에 적용 범위에 초점을 맞추었다. 특히 조약법인 1944년 시카고협약과 그의 부속 협약의 적용범위를 중심으로 전개한다. 이것은 국제조약이 발표되고 법적 효력을 나타내는 국제법적 원리를 파악하고 수많은 논쟁과 국제법 기구의 관심을 자극할 것이다.
두번째 장은 민간항공에 가해지는 위법적인 방해 행위에 대한 정의와 행위의 본질 그리고 ICAO를 통해 형성된 국제법 기구의 반응 즉, 감독과 범죄에 대해 가해지는 처벌에 대해 다룬다. 주요한 쟁점은 민간항공에 가해지는 위법한 방해행위와 관련된 다양한 협약과 법을 분석하고 또한 관계된 문제인 관할권, 승인, 발효 등을 함께 다룬다. 따라서 ICAO에 의해 결정된 법의 범위를 전반적으로 분석하였다.
세번째 장은 민간항공에 가한 위법한 방해행위에 대한 세가지 중요한 사례를 살펴본다. (1) 1983년 로커비에 발생한 팬암 103사건, (2) 2001년 911사건 이다. 이 사건들은 항공법의 발전에서 많은 변화를 가져왔으며 고려의 대상이다.
네번째 장은 이러한 현상을 다루는 접근과 같이 항공 테러리즘의 구체적인 면을 다룬다. 접근의 장점과 단점을 정치적 제안을 포함하여 전반적으로 검토한다. 또한 결합과 점진적인 접근 그리고 범죄인도, 승인, 공항에서의 안전표준통합 등 모두를 전체적으로 살펴본다.
다섯번째 장은 새로운 항공 협약의 혁신, 장점 그리고 테러리즘에 대항하는 접근 등 항공 안전에 대한 전세계적인 연구를 살펴보는 것을 다룬다.
이러한 연구의 과정은 항공운송 분야의 법과 정치의 혁명에 대한 연대기적인 이해를 용이하게 한다. 또한 항공법의 발전은 오랫동안 시대에 순응하기 보다 반작용적으로 형성되어 왔기 때문에 중요하다. 또한 결론적으로 공항과 항공기에 대한 안전이나 테러리스트에 대한 조치, 항공테러리스트나 하이재킹을 원조하는 국가에 대한 의미 있는 조치를 부과하는 것 등은 국제법이나 국내법 모두 국제적 협력이 없이 항공테러리즘을 해결할 수 없다.

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

Like few other commercial activities, an airline embodies the national symbol of the nation whose flag it flies. Its routes, existence, and all of its commercial activities are a product of national oversight and regulation. For some nations Aviation is a symbol of pride, prestige, national aspirations, and global penetration. Moreover commercial Aviation disasters whether intentional or accidental are uniquely treated by the news media as singular events appearing in the front pages of newspapers, the cover stories of news magazines, the major stories of television news broadcasting and electronic media sites. For all these reasons, commercial aircraft have become a prominent target of Terrorists. Terrorism has become the nightmare of the modern world. The means by which Terrorism manifests itself are as brutal as one can imagine. The offence of unlawful interference with international Civil Aviation broadly comprises of the following acts; Hijacking of aircrafts, Aviation Sabotage such as causing explosions in the aircraft on the ground and in flight, missile attacks against aircrafts, armed attacks on airports, passengers and other aviation related property, the Illegal carriage of narcotics by air and its criminal ramifications, using aircrafts as a weapon and organizing, directing and financing acts of terrorism.
Hijacking and other forms of aerial terrorism have developed as a means for the militarily weak to achieve political ends at the expense of the innocent. During the infancy of Civil Aviation, a passenger's principal concerns were the condition of the aircraft and the skills of the pilot. Recent decades have added a third concern: whether or not a fellow passenger intends to use the occasion to focus the media's attention on a revolutionary cause. The Hijacking or destruction of aircraft is still among the most effective means, of capturing a worldwide audience. Hijackings account for the largest percentage of all attacks against civil aviation. Other criminal acts include: (1) airport attacks; (2) bombings, attempted bombings, and shootings on board civil aviation aircraft; (3) general and charter aviation aircraft incidents; (4) off-airport facility attacks; and, (5) shootings at in-flight aircraft.
The first chapter will focus on the growth of international law and its applicability to air law. Emphasis to this extend will centre on the applicability of treaty law to the Chicago convention of 1944 and its annexes. This will be to show whether the international legal principles upon which international treaties are established have the nature and force of law an issue, which has aroused numerous debates, and concerns in the international legal community.
The second chapter will deal with definitions of acts of unlawful interference with Civil Aviation the nature of the acts as well as the response of the international legal community through ICAO to suppress and to punish its perpetrators. The aim will be to analyze the various conventions and laws relating to unlawful interference with Civil Aviation and will involve issues relating to jurisdictions, sanctions, and enforcement. Thus the extent of the law as a deterrent through ICAO shall be thoroughly analyzed.
The third chapter will explore three major cases of unlawful interference with civil aviation: (1) the Pan Am 103 disaster over Lockerbie in 1983 and (2) the September 11 attacks 2001. The impact of these cases in the development of air law as well as changes brought by them is given due consideration.
The fourth chapter will deal with specific aspects of aerial terrorism such as the approaches applicable to deal with this phenomenon. The strengths and loopholes of these approaches will be thoroughly examined, including making policy recommendations. These include the comprehensive and piecemeal approaches and the issues raised such as extradition, sanctions, unification of safety standards at airports as well as concerted action.
The fifth chapter will deal with an interpretative study of the new aviation conventions their innovations, strengths and approaches taken to fight against aerial terrorism as well as their implication in the aviation safety over the World skies. The discussion proceeds across time in order to facilitate a chronological understanding of the evolution of law and policy in aviation, which is particularly important because the development of aviation law has long been a reactive, rather than a proactive, process. It is submitted that neither international nor domestic law will effectively deter aerial terrorism without worldwide cooperation to strengthen airport and aircraft security, prosecute terrorists, and impose meaningful sanctions on states that provide safe havens for, or support, hijackers and other aerial terrorists.

목차 (Table of Contents)

• Introduction 17
• 1.1 Rationale of the Thesis………………………………………………………………………21
• 1.2 Objectives of the Thesis……………………………………………………………………..21
• 1.3 Questions of the Research………………………………………………………………..…21
• 1.4 Scope of Limitations…………………………………………………………………………22
• 1.5Literature Review…………………………………………………………………………...23
• 1.6 Research Methodology………………………………………………………………………24
• 1.7 Research Strategy……………………………………………………………………….......25
• 1.8 Organization of the Research ……………………………………………………………..25
• CHAPTER ONE
• Applicability of Treaty Law to the Chicago Convention 27
• 1.1 An Overview…………………………………………………………………………………..27
• 1.2Development of International Law through Treaties… ……………………………….30
• 1.3 The Vienna Convention on the Laws of Treaties (1969)……………………………..…32
• 1.4. The Chicago Convention and its Annexes……..…………………………………………35
• CHAPTER TWO
• Unlawful Interference with International Civil Aviation ……………………………….………….43
• 1. 1 Elements of the Offence of Unlawful Interference with international Civil Aviation...…………………………………………………………………………………………..45
• 1.2 Nature of the Offence of Unlawful Interference with International Civil Aviation…………………………………………………………………………………………….46
• 1.3 International Terrorism and the Legal Imbroglio involved in its definition...………………………………………………………………………………………...47
• 2. Hijacking or Aerial Piracy as the principal Act of Terrorism against International Civil Aviation…………………………………………………………………………………...…54
• 2.1. Hijacking, Defined and Analyzed………………………………………………………….54
• 2.2. Different species of Aerial Hijackings…………………………………………………....56
• 2.3. State Responsibility…………………….……………………………………………………59
• 2.4. International Law and the Offence of Hijacking …………………………………….…61
• CHAPTER THREE
• Cases of Unlawful Interference with International Civil Aviation ……………………. …………67
• 1.1 The Pan-American World Airways Flight 103 Case (the Pan Am Flight103)….………………………………………………………………………………………67
• 1.2 The Pan Am Flight 103: The Horror………………………………….…………………..67
• 1.3 The Legal issues raised by the Pan Am Flight 103 Case and its implication on the International Legal community with respect to Aviation Security………………….……...69
• 1.4 Lessons learned and the Reforms prompted by the Pan Am Flight 103…...………….75
• 1A. Annex 17 to the Chicago Convention 1974……………………………………………….79
• 1B. ICAO Resolutions and the Amendments to Annex 17……………………………...……84
• 2. The September 11 2001 Attack and its Effects on the Aviation Security…………….…85
• 2.1. The Aftermath of September 11 2001 Attack and its Implication on Aviation Law………………………………………………………………………………………………….88
• 2.1.A. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO): Annex 17 Amendments ……..90
• 2 .1.B. ICAO, Universal Security Audits…..…………………………………………………..93
• 2.1.C. September 11 2001 Inspired Aviation Counter-Terrorism Conventions and Protocol…………………………………………………………………………………………….94
• CHAPTER FOUR
• Legal Aspects of Aerial Terrorism: The Piecemeal and the Comprehensive Approaches 96
• 1 The Piecemeal Approach to Aerial Terrorism…………………………………………….98
• 1.1 The Successful Results of the Piecemeal Approach to Aerial Terrorism………...…...98
• 1.2 The Obligation of Member States Vis a vis the Victims of Acts of Unlawful Interference with International Civil Aviation………………………………………………..99
• 1.3The Recognition of Acts of Unlawful Interference with International Civil Aviation as an International Offence…………………………………………………………………….…100
• 1.4 The Loopholes Resulting from the Piecemeal Approach…………………..…………103
• 1A. Gaps within the Scope of Application of the Conventions………………………….…103
• 1B. Weakness Regarding the System of Sanctions (Aut dedere Aut punier)…………….104
• 2. The Comprehensive Approach to Aerial Terrorism …………………………………….106
• 2.1. The Comprehensive Approach and the Unification of Safety Standards at Airports………………………………………………………………………………………...…106
• 2.2. The Comprehensive Approach with respect to Concerted Action…………………...107
• 2.3 The Approaches in Enforcing the Law, with regards to Unlawful Interference………………………………………………………………………………………109
• 2.4 The Legal Hurdles Attached to Concerted Action ……………………………………..110
• 3. Measures of Self-Help and Hijackings…………………………………………………….113
• 4. The Courts and Acts of Unlawful Interference against Civil Aviation………………..115
• CHAPTER FIVE
• The Interpretative Study of the Beijing Convention of 2010 on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Relating to International Civil Aviation and the Protocol Supplementary to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft( Otherwise called the Hague Convention) ………………………………………119
• 1.1. A New International Legal Framework…………………………………………………120
• 1.2 Convention on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Relating to International Civil Aviation (Herein referred to as the Beijing Convention 2010)……………………………124
• 1.3 Impetus and the Process for Review of the Montreal and Hague Conventions…..………………………………………………………………………………....125
• 1.4 Negotiations of the Amendments to the Montreal and Hague Conventions……...…126
• 1.5New Types of Threats……………………………………………………………………….127
• 1.6 Responding to Future Threats…………………………………………………………….128
• 1.7 The Beijing Protocol 2010 Supplementary to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft (Otherwise called the Hague Convention)……………..…140
• 1.8. New Ancillary and Inchoate Offences under the Beijing Convention and Protocol…………………………………………………………………………………………..142
• Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………….…146